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Direct and indirect
speech can be a source of confusion for English learners. Let's first define
the terms, and then look at how to talk about what someone said, and how to
convert speech from direct to indirect.
You can answer the
question “What did he say?” in two ways:
· by repeating the words spoken (direct speech)
· by reporting the words spoken (indirect or
reported speech).
We often have to give
information about what people say or think. In order to do this you can use
direct or quoted speech, or indirect or reported speech.
1. Indirect Speech / Reported Speech
What is reported
speech?
· Reported speech is when you tell somebody else
what you or a person said before. Distinction must be made between direct
speech and reported speech.
· Direct speech vs Indirect speech:
Direct Speech
|
Indirect Speech
|
She says: "I like tuna fish."
|
She says that she likes tuna fish.
|
She said: "I'm visiting Paris next weekend"
|
She said that she was visiting Paris the following weekend.
|
· Different types of sentences
When you use reported speech, you either report:
a. Statements
b. Questions
c. Requests / Commands
A.
Reporting Statements
When transforming statements, check whether you have to change:
· Pronouns
· Tense
· Place and time expression
1. Pronouns
In reported speech, you often have to change the pronoun
depending on who says what.
Example:
She says, “My dad likes roast chicken.” – She says that her dad
likes roast chicken.
2. Tenses
· If the sentence starts in the present, there
is no backshift of tenses in reported speech.
No backshift:
Do not change the tense if the introductory clause is in a
present tense (e. g. He says). Note, however, that you might
have to change the form of the present tense verb (3rd person singular).
Example:
He says, “I write poems.” – He says that he writes English.
Direct Speech
|
Reported Speech
|
Simple Present
He said: "I am happy" |
Simple Past
He said that he was happy |
Present Progressive
He said: "I'm looking for my keys" |
Past Progressive
He said that he was looking for his keys |
Simple Past
He said: "I visited New York last year" |
Past Perfect Simple
He said that he had visited New York the previous year. |
Present Perfect
He said: " I've lived here for a long time " |
Past Perfect
He said that he had lived there for a long time |
Past Perfect
He said: "They had finished the work when Iarrived" |
Past Perfect
He said that they had finished the work when he had arrived" |
Past Progressive
He said: "I was playing football when the accident occurred" |
Past Perfect Progressive
He said that he had been playing football when the accident had occurred |
Present Perfect Progressive
He said:"I have been playing football for two hours." |
Past Perfect Progressive
He said that he had been playing football for two hours |
Past Perfect Progressive
He said: "I had been reading a newspaper when the light went off" |
Past Perfect Progressive
He said that he had been reading a newspaper when the light had gone off |
Future Simple (will+verb)
He said: "I will open the door." |
Conditional (would+verb)
He said that he would open the door. |
Conditional (would+verb)
He said: "I would buy Mercedes if I were rich" |
Conditional (would+verb)
He said that he would buy Mercedes if he had beenrich" |
· If the sentence starts in the past, there is
often backshift of tenses in reported speech.
Backshift:
You must change the tense if the introductory clause is in a past
tense (e. g. He said).
Example:
He said, “I am happy.” – He said that he was happy.
He said, “I am happy.” – He said that he was happy.
Examples of the main changes in tense:
The modal
verbs could, should, would, might, needn't, ought to, used to
do not normally change.
Example:
He said,
"She might be right." – He said that she might be right.
Other modal
verbs may change:
Modal
|
Direct speec
|
Repored speech
|
can
|
"I can do
it."
|
He said he could do
it.
|
may
|
"May I
go out?"
|
He wanted to know if
he might go out.
|
must
|
"She must apply
for the job."
|
He said that
she must/had to apply for the job.
|
will
|
"They will call
you."
|
He tod her that
they would call her.
|
3 . Place, Demonstrative, and Time Expressions
Place, demonstratives
and time expressions change if the context of the reported statement (i.e. the
location and/or the period of time) is different from that of the direct
speech.
In the following
table, you will find the different changes of place; demonstratives and time
expressions.
Direct Speech
|
Indirect Speech
|
Time Expressions
|
|
today
|
that day
|
now
|
then
|
yesterday
|
the day before
|
… days ago
|
… days before
|
last week
|
the week before
|
next year
|
the following year
|
tomorrow
|
the next day / the following day
|
Place
|
|
here
|
there
|
Demonstratives
|
|
this
|
that
|
these
|
those
|
B. Reporting Question
When transforming
questions, check whether you have to change:
· Pronouns
· Place and time expressions
· Tenses (backshift)
Also note that you
have to:
· transform the question into an indirect
question
·
use the question word
(where, when, what, how) or if / whether
Types of questions
|
Direct speech
|
Indirect speech
|
With question word
(what, why, where, how...)
|
"Why"
don’t you speak English?”
|
He asked me why I
didn’t speak English.
|
Without question
word (yes or no questions)
|
“Do you speak
English?”
|
He asked me whether
/ if I spoke English.
|
C. Reporting Requests / Commands
When transforming
requests and commands, check whether you have to change:
· Pronouns
· Place and time expressions
Direct speech
|
Reported speech
|
“Nancy, do the
exercise.“
|
He told Nancy to do
the exercise.
|
"Nancy, give me
your pen, please."
|
He asked Nancy to
give him her pen.
|
Example:
She said, “Sit down." - She asked me to sit down.
She said, "don't be lazy" - She asked me not to be
lazy
|
D. Other transformations
· Expressions of advice with must, should and ought are
usually reported using advise / urge.
Example:
“You must read this book.“
He advised / urged me to read that book.
Example:
“You must read this book.“
He advised / urged me to read that book.
· The expression let’s is usually reported
using suggest. In this case, there are two possibilities for
reported speech: gerund or statement with should.
Example:
“Let’s go to the cinema.“=
1. He suggested going to the cinema.
2. He suggested that we should go to the cinema.
Example:
“Let’s go to the cinema.“=
1. He suggested going to the cinema.
2. He suggested that we should go to the cinema.
Main clauses connected with and/but :
If two complete main clauses are connected with ‚and or ‚but,
put ‚that after the conjunction.
Example:
He said,“I saw her but she didn't see me.“ – He said that he had seen her but that she hadn't seen him.“
He said,“I saw her but she didn't see me.“ – He said that he had seen her but that she hadn't seen him.“
If the subject
is dropped in the second main clause (the conjunction is followed by a verb),
do not use ‚that‘.
Example:
She said,“I am a nurse and work in a hospital.“ – He said that she was a nurse and worked in a hospital.“
She said,“I am a nurse and work in a hospital.“ – He said that she was a nurse and worked in a hospital.“
2. Direct Speech
Direct speech means to say exactly what someone else
said. It is usually put inside quotation marks (". . .").
a. Reporting verbs
To report what someone
said we usually use verbs such as:
Say, tell, ask,
explain, request, etc.
For example:
· She says we should go.
· They told us to bring our stuff.
· He asked them the time.
· I explained the rules to her.
b. The word THAT
The word THAT can be
used after reporting verbs to begin the statement. But remember – it isoptional.
You can use it or
leave it out, as you prefer.
For example:
· She says they are full = She says that they
are full
· I told them we could help = I told them that
we could help
· I suggest we start = I suggest that we start
c. How to report
When you quote what
someone else has said (direct speech) it's very simple: nothing changes and you
put the statement between quotation marks.
But when you report a statement (tell it in your own words), there are obviously some necessary changes.
But when you report a statement (tell it in your own words), there are obviously some necessary changes.
d. Reported speech – changes
Ø Pronouns
If there are any
pronouns present, you may have to change them.
Examples for when and
how to change pronouns:
Direct speech
|
Reported speech
|
She says, "I like
ice cream."
|
She says she likes
ice cream.
|
They say, "You are
right."
|
They say we are
right.
|
He says, "My name
is Gary."
|
He says his name
is Gary.
|
Third person singular
verbs :
Verbs in the third
person singular form usually get an S at the end:
I
cook
He cooks
We
talk She
talks
You
have It has
I
am
He is
So when reporting
speech we must apply this rule.
Examples for when and
how to change verbs:
Direct speech
|
Reported speech
|
He says,
"I work every day."
|
He says he works every
day.
|
She says,
"I am a big girl."
|
She says she is a
big girl.
|
Bonnie says,
"I have a question."
|
Bonnie says
she has a question.
|
Ø Place and Time expressions
In many cases, when
you report someone's speech you are in a different place, and almost always in
different point of time (we usually report in the present what someone told us
before, in the past).
So we need to change
the place and time expressions accordingly.
Examples for when and
how to change place and time expressions:
Direct speech
|
Reported speech
|
She said, "I work here."
|
She said she worked there.
|
They said, "We are eating now."
|
They said they were eating then.
|
You said, "She sings today."
|
You said she sang that day.
|
He said, "I will come tomorrow."
|
He said he would come the
following day. |
A list of common place
and time expressions :
this
|
that
|
these
|
those
|
here
|
there
|
now
|
then / at the time
|
today
|
that day / yesterday
|
yesterday
|
the day before / the previous day
|
a week ago / last week
|
a week before / the previous week
|
last month
|
the month before / the previous month
|
next year
|
the following year
|
in three years
|
three years from then
|
Note: With these
things, always use your common sense. If you are reporting something that
someone said ten minutes ago, and your location is still the same, and the time
frame is still the same, then don't change these place and time expressions.
For example:
Direct speech
|
Reported speech
|
Ten minutes ago you
said,
"We have a lot of work today." |
Ten minutes ago you
said
we had a lot of work today. |
Ø
Tense backshift
Backshift is the changing of a tense when reporting
what someone said. When reporting what somebody said in the past,
the tenses of the verbs in the reported statement go one step backwards.
Here are some more examples:
Direct speech
|
Reported speech
|
You said, "We are late."
|
You said we were late.
|
They said, "We have plans."
|
They said they had plans.
|
He said, "I work hard."
|
He said he worked hard.
|
She said, "I drink water."
|
She said she drank water.
|
Here is how the tense
backshift works:
Direct speech
|
Reported speech
|
|
He said, "I eat cheese."
|
He said he ate cheese.
|
|
He said, "I am eating cheese."
|
He said he was eating cheese.
|
|
He said, "I have eaten cheese."
|
He said he had eaten cheese.
|
|
He said, "I have been
eating cheese." |
He said he had been
eating cheese. |
|
He said, "I ate cheese."
|
He said he had eaten cheese.
|
|
He said, "I was eating cheese."
|
He said he had been eating cheese.
|
|
He said, "I had eaten cheese."
|
Past perfect
(no change)
He said he had eaten cheese.
|
|
He said, "I had been
eating cheese." |
Past perfect
progressive
(no change)
He said he had been
eating cheese. |
The backshift also
works on certain modal verbs:
Direct speech
|
Reported speech
|
Will
She said, "I will eat cheese."
|
Would
She said she would eat cheese.
|
Can
She said, "I can eat cheese."
|
Could
She said she could eat cheese.
|
Must
She said, "I must eat cheese."
|
Had to
She said she had to eat cheese.
|
Shall
She said, "I shall eat cheese."
|
Would
She said she would eat cheese.
|
May
She said, "I may eat cheese."
|
Might
She said she might eat cheese.
|
There is NO
CHANGE in the following modal verbs:
Direct speech
|
Reported speech
|
Would
|
|
She said, "I would eat
cheese."
|
She said she would eat cheese.
|
Could
|
|
She said, "I could eat
cheese."
|
She said she could eat
cheese.
|
Should
|
|
She said, "I should eat
cheese."
|
She said she should eat
cheese.
|
Might
|
|
She said, "I might eat
cheese."
|
She said she might eat
cheese.
|
Ought to
|
|
She said, "I ought to eat
cheese."
|
She said she ought to eat
cheese.
|
e. No Tense Backshift
When the reporting
verb is in the simple past tense, the verbs in the reported
statement usually go one step backwards.
However, if you are reporting facts or something that is still true, you can keep the verbs in the present:
However, if you are reporting facts or something that is still true, you can keep the verbs in the present:
Direct speech
|
Reported speech
|
You said, "The
Earth is round."
|
You said the
Earth is round.
OR You said the Earth was round. |
I said,
"Rome is in Italy."
|
I said Rome is in
Italy.
OR I said Rome was in Italy. |
She said,
"People sleep at night."
|
She said
people sleep at night.
OR She said people slept at night. |
Also, if the reporting
verb is in the simple present, present perfect, orfuture,
then there is no tense backshift:
Direct speech
|
Reported speech
|
You say, "I jog daily."
|
You say you jog daily.
|
You have said, "I jog daily."
|
You have said you jog daily.
|
You will say, "I jog daily."
|
You will say you jog daily.
|
f. Reporting Questions
When reporting a
question, you should also change the question into an indirect question. In
other words, you need to change this sentence so that it is a normal positive
sentence, not a question.
You can use the words if or whether for YES / NO questions.
You can use the words if or whether for YES / NO questions.
Direct speech
|
Reported speech
|
She asked, "Are
you well?"
|
She asked if I
was well.
|
"Where do you live?"
he asked me.
|
He asked me where I
lived.
|
"Why don't we
meet?" she asked me.
|
She asked me why we
didn't meet.
|
I asked, "How
does she make them?"
|
I asked how she made
them.
|
They asked,
"Where is the mall?"
|
They asked where the
mall is.
|
g. Reporting Orders and Request
When reporting an order or request we change them into an
infinitive
Direct speech
|
Reported speech
|
"Go home," she told
me.
|
She told me to go home.
|
"Start talking," he
told us.
|
He told us to start talking.
|
"Stop right there,"
they ordered us. |
They ordered us
to stop right there. |
"Could you please open the
door?"
she asked me. |
She asked me to open the
door.
|
"Don't shout," I asked.
|
I asked them not to shout.
|
.
REFERENCE:
►Diposting oleh
:Unknown
:
di
16.00
Ellipsis means leaving something out.
Elliptical sentence is a shorter form of sentence which some words have been
omitted, but it retains the same meaning. It is used so that we can avoid
unnecessary repeated words.
It is noticeable that elliptical
sentences are used quite common in some contexts as:
[1] In normal conversation
• A: Where are you
going? B: To school. (= I am going to school.)
• A: Ready? (= Are you
ready?) B: Yes, I am. (= Yes, I am ready.)
[2] In comparison
• Phalla is taller than
Phearom.
(= Phalla
is taller than Phearom is tall.)
• The ads attracted
younger than older people.
(= The ads
attracted younger than it attracted older people.)
[3] In sentences joined by
coordinating conjunctions
• I have washed and
ironed my clothes.
(= I have
washed my clothes, and I have ironed my clothes.)
• Bora likes football,
Phalla volleyball, and Sopheak basketball.
(= Bora
likes football, Phalla likes volleyball, and Sopheak likes basketball.)
• Kolab has five
dollars, and Sopheak three.
(= Kolab
has five dollars, and Sopheak has three dollars.)
[4] In some dependent clauses
• If you clean the
house today, i will tomorrow.
(= If you
clean the house today, i will clean the house tomorrow.)
• I will go to the
party if you will.
(= I will
go to the party if you will go to the party.)
[5] In reduced clauses
• The song sung by
Preap Sovath was so popular.
(= The song
which was sung by Preap Sovath was so popular. )
• The man selling the
shoes is my friend.
(= The man
who is selling the shoes is my friend.)
• The police has found
the car stolen yesterday.
(= The
police has found the car which was stolen yesterday.)
• When studying, he
tried hard.
(= When he
was studying, he tried hard. )
• I visited the Bayon
Temple after coming back from Battambang.
(= I
visited the Bayon Temple after I came back from Battambang. )
• Though a bit nervous,
she presented the products to the doctor very well.
(= Though
she was a bit nervous, she presented the products to the doctor very well. )
[6] When used with "SO, TOO,
EITHER, NEITHER"
• My sister is tall,
and so do my brothers.
(= My
sister is tall, and my brothers are tall, too.)
• A : I was very sleepy
last night. B : So am I.
(= A : I
was very sleepy last night. B : I am hungry, too.)
• My mom likes mangoes
and my brother does too.
(= My mom
likes mangoes, and my brother likes mangoes, too.)
• He didn't say
anything, and I didn't either.
(= He
didn't say anything, and I didn't say anything, too.)
• Her father likes to
travel, and she does either.
(= Her
father likes to travel, and she likes to travel, too.)
• He didn't study hard,
and neither did I.
(= He
didn't study hard, and I didn't study hard, too.)
• She doesn't review
the lessons, and neither her friend.
(= She
doesn't review the lessons, and her friend didn't review the lessons, too.)
source :
http://grammarkit.blogspot.com/2012/12/elliptical-sentence.html
►Diposting oleh
:Unknown
:
di
02.10
Susanto my name , my third child of three brothers, i study accounting majors in Gunadarma University
Plan in my life there are many, in short janka plan I want to graduate from Gunadarma according to the time which is 4 years and I also have a plan before graduating from Gunadarma I have to have a business . Because I do not want after graduation I was expecting money from my parents so I should be able to find money for the needs of my life even before I graduated from gundarma .
Because my goal is to become a successful entrepreneur and useful to society .
►Diposting oleh
:Unknown
:
di
20.24
Pronouns are words that take the place of nouns. They substitute for nouns to make speech and writing less cumbersome by using a single word (the pronoun) to represent much longer passages and ideas.
E.g: "Frank thought aout uying a new car, but then he changed her mind."
There are several types of pronouns: personal, demonstrative, reflexive, intensive, interrogative, relative, and indefinite. Note that some authorities may classify possessive adjectives, demonstrative pronouns, relative pronouns, indefinite pronouns (or quantifiers) as determiners and not pronouns.
Kinds of Pronouns
There are six kinds of pronouns with different functions:
1. Personal pronouns
This kind of pronoun refers to a particular person or thing. The form of the personal pronoun that is appropriate to use for a specific sentence depends on the gender and number of persons or things that serve as the antecedents.
For example, you are referring to a female subject in the sentence, the pronouns that are appropriate to use are: she, her, and hers. If you are referring to a male, you can use: he, him, and his. For a group of persons, not including yourself, the appropriate pronouns are: they, them, and theirs.
Personal pronouns can serve as the subjects, objects of the verb or preposition, and can also show possession. They are formally classified into: subjective personal pronouns, objective personal pronouns, and possessive personal pronouns.
Examples:
You are definitely the biggest science nerd I’ve ever met.
In the example above, the underlined pronoun serves as the subject.
Harry persuaded her to come with him.
The pronoun “her” is the object of the verb persuaded. Him, on the other hand, is the object of the preposition with.
Ours is the one on the left.
The pronoun “ours” signifies possession.
2. Demonstrative pronouns
The function of this kind of pronoun is to point to a noun. Examples are: this, these, that, and those. The pronouns “this” and “these” points to things that are nearby while the other two are for things that are far. Aside from proximity, you must also consider the number of things you are pointing out. For singular nouns, “this” and “that” should be used, while for plural nouns “these” and “those” are appropriate.
Examples:
That is the car that I’ll buy for my birthday.
The speaker is pointing out to a singular noun that is far from him/her.
She said she wanted these.
The underlined pronoun refers to a plural noun and also serve as the object of the verb wanted.
3. Indefinite pronouns
This kind of pronoun refers to unspecified things. Some examples are: any, all, another, each, anyone, anything, anybody, nobody, everyone, everybody, someone, somebody, few, and many.
Examples:
Many were called for the interview but only 3 were hired.
He’s ready to give up everything for his family’s safety.
4. Intensive pronouns
The function of intensive pronouns is to give emphasis to the antecedent. Examples of this kind of pronoun are: myself, itself, himself, herself, yourself, yourselves, themselves, and ourselves.
Examples:
The president himself said that it was a terrorist attack.
I myself knew that it was a mistake.
5. Interrogative pronouns
As the title implies, the function of this kind of pronoun is to ask questions. Examples of interrogative pronouns are: who, what, which, whom, whoever, whatever, whichever, and whomever.
Examples:
Who wrote the book 1984?
What did the doctors say?
6. Relative pronouns
This kind of pronoun links one clause or phrase to another. Some of the most common relative pronouns are: who, whoever, whomever, that, and which.
Examples:
The contestant who gets the highest score wins the million dollar jackpot.
In this sentence, the underlined pronoun is the subject of the verb gets. The subordinate clause, “who gets the highest score wins the million dollar jackpot,” describes the noun contestant.
He will accept whichever project comes first.
The subordinate clause, ”whichever project comes first,” serves as the object of the verb “will accept.”
7. Reflexive pronouns
This kind of pronoun is used to refer back to the subject. Some of the reflexive pronouns are: yourself, myself, ourselves, himself, herself, themselves, and itself.
Example:
Sandra never forgets to send a copy of the email to herself.
The pronoun “herself” refers back to the subject of the sentence, which is Sandra.
He promised to repair the broken fence, however, we ended up fixing it ourselves.
The underlined reflexive pronoun refers back to the subject we.
Source:
understandinggrammar.com/parts-of-speech/pronouns
Source:
understandinggrammar.com/parts-of-speech/pronouns
►Diposting oleh
:Unknown
:
di
21.30
Langganan:
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